Part 2: Formal Education and Informal Education

There are different forms of education. Mainly education is of two types-formal education, and informal education. Formal education is undertaken in schools or institutions, specially established and maintained for the purpose. “Informal education is not pre-planned. It is quite incidental. Informal education is imparted by social institutions like family, work groups, marriage, peer groups etc. from time immemorial. The objectives of informal education are the intergenerational transfer of knowledge, skills, values, as well as, the teaching of cultural norms. Daily experience and interaction with the social and economic environment play a vital role in informal education.”^[1]

Although, there is no definite time for getting knowledge or education, the Smṛtikāras has given different opinions about the formal education. The education of Vedic period was indicative of an excellent educational system. During the Vedic period, forest educational system (gurukula) prevailed. The gurukula (preceptor’s house) system had also been followed in the time of Bāṇa (606-647A.D.). The famous gurukula (preceptor’s house) system may be compared to residential education school. The writer Bāṇabhaṭṭa notes in his Harṣacarita that, many residential schools were prevalent during his time.^[2]

When Harṣavardhana had gone to the hermit of Divākaramitra, he saw the latter was surrounded by his pupils and students of various sects from different geographical locations.^[3] Moreover, the students were involved in making discussions, repeating, doubting, expounding, establishing truths etc. while intellectually interacting with their teacher,^[4] Here, a nice and vivid picture of the gurukula system is found. It also brings to light the different types of teaching methods at those times. On the other hand, Bāṇabhaṭṭa has mentioned that king Harṣa’s city was full of schools (gurukulāni) where the teaching was exceptional (i.e., niravadyavidyā).^[5] One of the most important characteristics of gurukula system is the relation between the teacher and the student. The relation between the teacher and the student had been built up with the foundation stone of humility, love and faith. Regarding the relationship between the teacher and the student in the Upaniṣadic age Dr. A.S. Altekar in his Education in Ancient India, remarks that direct, personal and continuous contact with teacher of noble character naturally produces great effect on the scholar during the pliable period of childhood and adolescence.^[6] In the Harṣacarita, it is described how king Harṣavardhana had felt to see the sage Divākaramitra for the first time. He felt that Divākaramitra was the all in all of good conduct,^[7] and happiness itself would find pleasure in him.^[8]

In ancient India the stages of a human life were directed according to the law of Manu. In this ākhyāyikā, Bāṇa has described himself as a strong adherent of the laws of human life lay down by Manu (as guiding principles).^[9] In the times of Bāṇa, āśrama system was followed by everybody in the society. There were four types of āśramas, which suggests people lived according to certain specific duties. These stages are viz., brahmacarya or gurukula (perceptions house), gārhastya (home), vānaprasta (hermit) and sannyāsa (life of forest). Among the four āśramas, brahmacarya comes first. This aśrama begins with the initiation ceremony (upanayana saṃskāra) which is the beginning of the Vedic study, and comes to the end with the convocation ceremony samāvarttana (i.e., a student’s coming back home after finishing his course of study), and one could enter into family after getting order by his father. It was made compulsory for all the boys of the upper three classes i.e. brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya and vaiśya. Originally, education was the main purpose of this ritual. In this context, reference should be made to the famous poet Kālidāsa who has depicted in his Raghuvaṃśam, directly or indirectly, that the infantry is the most suitable and the best period for practicing vidyā.^[10]

All these rules are related to brāhmaṇa students at that time. In the Harṣacarita, it is found that Bāṇa had been sent to gurugṛha, on his way back home after finishing his course of study. It is found that the father of Bāṇa had performed all the purificatory ceremonies (saṃskāra) in case of Bāṇa (i.e., in the case of a dvija from conception of birth, such as jātakarma, nāmakaraṇa, uponayana etc.). Initiation ceremony is the beginning of the Vedic study^[11] and comes to the end with the convocation ceremony (samāvarttana), a student’s coming back home after finishing his course of holy study. After this, one can enter in to the family life after getting approval from his teacher.^[12] The upanayana ritual, which marked the beginning of religious and literary education, was made obligatory for all both male and female. The upanayana ceremony, as explained in the Atharvaveda, means a new birth when the pupil emerges as a dvija or twice born.^[13] The pupil owes his first birth to his parents, which is actually a mere physical birth, and the birth which unfolds his mind and soul is the second one. Bāṇa was a brāhmaṇa boy and had completed his formal gurukula education before the age of 14,^[14] after which he entered into the family life and lived as diligent householder.^[15]

Again, descriptions are to be found about the wearing brāhmanical-thread (yajñopavīta) by the female counterpart also. Bāṇabhaṭṭa has described that devī Sarasvatī’s body was rendered pure by the brāhmanical-thread (yajñopavīta or brahmasūtra) hanging down from her shoulder, as if it were a coil of virtue^[16] and she was a very learned girl in whose tongue flow vidyās.^[17] This proves that at that time the girls were also performing initiation. In the Kādambarī, Mahāśvetā was rendered the brahmasūtra.^[18] About the prince’s education in the 7^th century A.D., Bāṇabhaṭṭa has vividly described in his other gadyakāvya, the Kādambarī. Here, he has mentioned that the prince Chandrāpīḍa, son of king Tārāpīḍa, had entered to school in 6 years old, after performing the religious ceremony (i.e., cūḍākaraṇa),^[19] and also, that he came back to rājakula completing his study in 16 years^[20] after getting approval from his teacher.^[21] In this context, the author has mentioned that the king Tārāpīḍa offered an extensive building outside the city, where prince Candrāpīḍa would receive all types of knowledge^[22] with other common pupils, from many expert teachers.^[23]

Besides this, the curriculum of formal education, which were being acquired by Candrāpīḍa in the school are such as—

pade, vākye, pramāṇe, dharmaśāstre, rājanītisu, vyāyāmavidyāsu, cāpacakracarmakṛpānaśaktitomaraparaśugadāprabhṛtisu, sarvesvāyudhaviśeṣesu, …………rathacaryāṣu, …vināvenu..prabhṛtiṣuvādyesu, bharatādipraṇīteṣu nātyaśāstreṣu, nāradīyaprabhṛtiṣu gandharvavidyā….anyeṣu api kalāviśeṣesu param kauśalamavāp.^[24]

It implies that prince Caṇḍrāpīḍa did not only study the different branches of knowledge such as grammar, philosophy, Dharmaśāstra etc., but also gained the highest skill in gymnastics, in all kinds of weapons such as bow, shield, battle-axe etc., besides driving and elephant riding. He also acquired knowledge about the use of musical instruments such as flute and drum. He also learnt the laws of learning laid down by Bharatamuni, all the mechanical arts, the Vedas and the science of music etc. All types of subjects were recommended for the princes in that period. Under the king Puṣpabhūti’s dynasty, the princes were taught about all these arts.^[25] Although, the Arthaśāstra prescribed the knowledge of all four science is essential for the king.^[26] Manu also mentioned the four subjects for king’s education (i.e., ānvikṣikī, trayī, vārtā and daṇḍanīti.)^[27] However, in the 7^th century A.D., the education of the princes was different from the time of smṛtis.

Footnotes and references:

[1]:

^. Non-Formal Education on the people of Manipur Valley, Thesis, KKHL, G.U.

[2]:

[a] niravadyavidyāvidyotitāni ca gurukulāni sevamānaḥ, Harṣacarita,V.p.19 [b] gurukulamiti vidyārthibhiḥ, Ibid.,III.p.44

[3]:

atha teṣāṃ.. madhye nānādeśīyaiḥ stānastāneṣu stāṇūnāśritaiḥ śilātaleṣūpaviṣtamāna….. paurāṇikaiḥ sāptatantavaiḥ śaivaiḥ śābdaiḥ ….. pratyucchārdbhiśca saṃśayānaiśca vyutpādayadbhiśca vivādamāanaicchabhyasayadbhiśca vyāchakṣanaiśca śiṣyatām pratipannairdurādevāvedyamānam, Ibid.,VIII.p.128

[4]:

atha teṣāṃ madhye …pratuccādbhiśca saṃśayānaiśca…..vyutpādayadbhiśca vivādamānaiśca….pratipannairdurādevāvedyamānam…., Ibid.

[5]:

atha śanaiḥ śanairatyudāraravyavahṛtirmanohṛnti bṛhānti rājakulāni vīkṣamāṇaḥ ……. niravadyavidyāvidyotitāni ca gurukulāni sevamānāḥ, Ibid.,I.p.19

[6]:

Education in Ancient India,p.32

[7]:

sarvasvaṃ sadvṛttatāyāḥ, Harṣacarita,VIII.p.128

[8]:

….nirvṛtiṃ sukhasya…, Ibid.

[9]:

idānīṃ tu sugata iva śāntamanasi manāmiva kartari varnāśramavyavasthānāṃ samāvartinīva ca sākṣāddaṇḍabhṛti debe śāsati….., Ibid.,II.p.36

[10]:

śaiśavebhyastavidyānām….., Raghuvaṃśam,I.8

[11]:

garvāṣtameabde kurbīta brāhmanasyopanayanam | garbhādaikādaśe rājño garbhāttu dvādaśe vaiśyaḥ || Manusaṃhitā,II.36

[12]:

gurunanumataḥ snātā samāvṛtto yathāvidhi | udhāheta dvijo bhāryām savarṇā lakṇaṇānvitam || Ibid.,III.4

[13]:

ācarya upanayanmāno brahmacārinaṃ kṛnute garbhamantaḥ | tām rātristiśra udare bibharti tām jātamdrastrumabhisamyanti devaḥ || Atharvaveda,11.3.1.3

[14]:

[a] brāhmaṇo’smi jātaḥ somapāyināṃ vaṃśe vātsyāyanānām, Harṣacarita,II.p.36 [b] kṛtopanayanādikriyākalāpasya samāvṛttasya caturdaśavarṣadeśīyasya pitāpi śrutismṛitivihitaṃ kṛtvā dvijajanocitaṃ nikhilaṃ puṇyajātaṃ kālenadaśamīṣtha evāstamagāt. Ibid.,I.p.19

[15]:

dāraparigrahādabhyagāriko’smi, Ibid.,II.p.36

[16]:

vidvānmānasanivāsalagnena guṇakalāpenevaṃsāvalambinā brahmasūtreṇa pabitrīkṛtakāyā……, Ibid.,I.p.3

[17]:

vadanapraviṣṭasarvavidyācaraṇālaktakaraseneva pāṭalena sphuratā daśanacchadena virājamānā, Ibid.

[18]:

maṇḍalīkṛtena brahmasūtrena pavitrīkṛtakāyām, Kādambarī,p.130

[19]:

krameṇa kṛtacūḍākaraṇādikriyākalāpasya śaiśavamatikrām candrāpīḍasya, Ibid., p.260

[20]:

ayamatrabhavato daśamaḥ saṃvatsaro vidyāgṛhamadhivasataḥ praviṣṭo’si ṣasthamanubhavantavarṣam. evaṃ sapiṇditenamunā ṣorśeṇa pravardhase, Ibid., p.269

[21]:

kumāra, mahārājaḥ samājñāpayati…..śikṣitāḥ sakalāḥ kalāḥ……anumato’si vinirgamāya vidyāgṛhātsarvācāryaiḥ, Ibid.

[22]:

…sakalaḥ kalākalāpaḥ, Ibid., p.126

[23]:

sarvavidyācāryāṇaṃ ca saṃgrahe yatnamatimahāntamanvaṣṭhit, Ibid., p.125

[24]:

Kādambarī, purvārdhaḥ.p.263

[25]:

gurukulamiti vidyārthibhiḥ, Harṣacarita,III.p.44

[26]:

Arthaśāstra,1.2

[27]:

Manusaṃhitā, VII.43